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Numerous prior book, journal, and patent publications by the author [1–68] are drawn upon extensively throughout the text. Almost all of the journal publications are open access. These publications can typically be found online at either the author's personal website (www.meta‐logos.com) or with one of the following online publishers: www.m‐hikari.com or bmcbioinformatics.biomedcentral.com.

A “fair” die has equal probability of rolling a 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, i.e. a probability of 1/6 for each of the outcomes. Notice how the sum of all of the discrete probabilities for the different outcomes all add up to 1, this is always the case for probabilities describing a complete set of outcomes.

A “loaded” die has a non‐uniform distribution, for prob = 0.5 to roll a “6” and uniform on the other die rolls you have loaded die_roll_probability = (1/10,1/10,1/10,1/10,1/10,1/2).

The first program to be discussed is named prog1.py and will introduce the notion of discrete probability distributions in the context of rolling the familiar six‐sided die. Comments in Python are the portion of a line to the right of any “#” symbol (except for the first line of code with “#!.....”, that is explained later).