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At the same time, it is hoped that the book will be useful to the more advanced class of brickmakers and clayworkers generally, many of whom have expressed a desire to see the articles in this form.

Geo. F. Harris.

Birkbeck Institution,

Bream’s Buildings, Chancery Lane, E.C.

1st February, 1897.

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Let us go to Crayford, near Erith, or to Ilford, in Essex, and take a superficial glance at some of the brickyards found at those places; in particular, let us ascertain a little concerning the earths employed. We find in one brickyard a series of stiff brown or bluish clays, interstratified between sandy clays or “loams,” with thin brownish partings. In another, the loam will become very sandy, and the earth light, with a slight greenish tinge. A third has thin pebble or gravel beds developed, or small stones sparingly scattered in the clays and loams on certain horizons. A fourth contains, in addition to some of the beds above described, a lime-clay or marl1 with small pellets of chalk. It will be noticed on entering the yards that these various horizons, or beds, as they are conveniently termed, are disposed in regular lines or layers, more or less horizontal; in other words, the beds are “stratified.” On the face of the working being dug into, it will often be found that these thin beds, a few inches or feet each in thickness, vary in depth, and frequently disappear altogether, or “thin out,” whilst, on the other hand, a bed only a few inches thick may become as many feet, and new beds are found to be developed. A pure sand may in like manner become loamy on being dug into, and, on being further developed, pass insensibly into a stiff clay. And many other changes take place into which we will not enquire at the moment. Suffice it to say, that in such brickyards the strata are very locally developed, though it follows from the circumstance of their existence for so many years, that what changes have taken place, to some extent compensate each other, so that the material is still an earth suitable for making bricks. Again, certain beds of much economic value may be more persistent than others, both in character and development. Having noticed all these things, we perceive a couple of men digging with care into the brick-earth, and presently they bring some objects to us which we have no difficulty in recognizing as the remains of the lower jaw of an elephant’s skull. Returning to the spot where they were exhumed, the upper jaw and tusks also are uncovered. To the clay workers these things are well known; in their time they have found many similar skulls of animals in the brick-earth; but they know next to nothing concerning them, or how they got there. Another expedition to the same localities may yield the remains of rhinoceros, the musk sheep, grizzly bear, hippopotamus, reindeer, and many other animals. A fine series of the remains of these, obtained from the brick-earths of the valley of the Thames at several points, is exhibited in the geological department of the British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington, and more or less complete skeletons obtained from the same source may be found in other, and local museums. One of the most interesting points concerning these remains is that so many of the animals represented in the brick-earths are of extinct species—there are no species included in this latter category of precisely similar kinds to animals now living, Thus the elephant was different to modern elephants; we know, from remains found elsewhere, that it was clothed with wool. The same also with the rhinoceros. The reindeer no longer lives in this country, being confined to northerly latitudes; whilst the musk sheep is a denizen of the Arctic regions, and the hippopotamus is restricted to the tropical or sub-tropical climes. But we might continue for a long time expatiating on the character of the very numerous mammalian remains found in our common brick-earths. What a curious assemblage of animals! It is wonderful to contemplate the time when the reindeer and musk sheep lived side by side with the elephant and rhinoceros on the site whereon London now stands.