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The participation of users in innovative processes is an important factor in the success of an innovation, particularly during the ideation, testing (concept, prototype) and marketing phases (Gatignon et al. 2016). The various forms of open innovation that we have just described also refer to a certain heterogeneity of terms: depending on the case, we speak of involvement, participation or even co-production.

A more recent paradigm – value co-creation (VCC) – is also interested in these interactions between companies and consumers but goes further in recognizing the active role of the latter (Vargo and Lusch 2004, 2008). This approach reverses the classical perspectives to postulate that value is generated not by companies (which only make value propositions), but by consumers during their participation and then use. An organization therefore becomes co-creative if it reinforces its interactions with users, in order to foster the iterative emergence of value-generating propositions for end users (Grönroos 2011). Interactions do not aim to change the consumer, but on the contrary to transform the company.