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ssss1 Bozzini’s Lichtleiter, a vase‐shaped, leather‐covered tin lantern using a wax candle light source.

Source: Courtesy of Dr. David C. Twedt.

Enter the German gastroenterologist Heinz Kalk (1895–1973), who in 1929 introduced a foreoblique lens system, which effectively increased the field of vision. Kalk is considered by many to be the greatest clinical laparoscopists of all times. He was disturbed by the contemporary high fatality rates associated with liver biopsies, and he was the first to introduce a safe and accurate method of endoscopic biopsies of liver, gallbladder, and kidney. With Kalk's improvements, the increased usefulness of the scope invigorated surgeons to start using the technology. Before Kalk, endoscopy had mainly been applied by gynecologists and urologists. Kalk was fortunate to, just barely, make it out alive during the Stalingrad invasion of 1943. His survival was fortunate to the development of laparoscopy, because the highly productive physician continued his prolific scientific publishing and research well into the 1950s. During the 1950s, he began collaborating with Karl Storz in the development of instrumentation.