Читать книгу Lost Worlds of 1863. Relocation and Removal of American Indians in the Central Rockies and the Greater Southwest онлайн

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Under these definitions and usages the California massacres, the Bear River Massacre, the Sand Creek Massacre, the Yaqui deportations, and the events at Wounded Knee would be described as “genocidal,” while the removal of Paiutes, Navajos, Mescaleros, Chiricahua Apaches, and Yavapai would be “ethnic cleansing.” Certain writers, like David E. Stannard (see below), or some of those cited above, may not agree with this distinction. As Stannard and others have noted, most white Americans thought in terms of expulsion or extermination, and they were not necessarily mutually exclusive options. Some forced marches were literally “death marches.” The early years of the Indian Boarding School experiment might be called an attempt at “cultural genocide.”

As for “holocaust,” the word was used generally in English to denote devastation and massacres. Since 1945 most scholars, with the exception of David E. Stannard, use it to refer specifically to the Nazi genocide of Jews and others. Stannard, in his excellent and comprehensive study of the extermination of American Indians, speaks freely of an American Holocaust. Stannard’s holocaust included the interdependent forces of disease and genocide (including slavery and racism) that brought a deadly end to the lives of nineteen out of twenty Indians between 1492 and the end of the nineteenth century.¹¹