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ssss1 Dry Bean yields (kg/ha) in the US over 110 years since 1909.

Source: Updated from Vandemark et al. (2014) using USDA‐NASS (2020b) data.

ssss1 Major bean breeding programs in the US, location and seed type focus prior to 1980.

Institution State Seed types Breeders Cornell NY Light red kidney, black D. Wallace MSU MI Navy, dark, light red kidney M.W. Adams UNL NE Great northern D.P. Coyne CSU CO Pinto D. Woods UI ID Pinto, pink J. Kolar, M. LeBaron USDA‐ARS WA Small red, pink D. Burke UCD CA Kidney, pink, cranberry C. Tucker

The genus Phaseolus is New World in origin in contrast to Old World Vigna species, which includes related grain legumes such as cowpea, adzuki, and mung beans. Bean breeders are limited in their improvement efforts to working within the genus Phaseolus due to speciation barriers that prevent successful hybridization. Phaseolus includes five cultivated species separated into four gene pools (ssss1) and over 70 wild species (Freytag and Debouck 2002). Within the five species of cultivated Phaseolus, common bean is the most widely adapted and economically important member compared to other species that include lima and tepary beans. Breeders have successfully transferred traits from the scarlet runner bean (P. coccineus) and P. costaricensis in the secondary gene pool (Schwartz and Singh 2013) and from members of tepary bean (P. acutifolius) in the tertiary gene pool (Singh and Miklas 2015; Kusolwa et al. 2016), but no successful introgression with lima bean (P. lunatus) in the quaternary gene pool has occurred.